9.3.3.3 Big Bang
Explain how evidence, including the Doppler shift of light from distant stars and cosmic background radiation, is used to understand the composition, early history and expansion of the universe.
Explain how gravitational clumping leads to nuclear fusion, producing energy and the chemical elements of a star.
Overview
MN Standard in lay terms:
All matter and energy that exists in our universe originated from a single point in time between 10 and 20 billion years ago. The currently accepted model that explains how the universe formed is called the Big Bang Theory. According to the Big Bang Theory, all of the material in the universe started as a very hot and compact mixture of radiation and subatomic particles that has been expanding and cooling since it formed. Gravity and other forces (strong, weak, and electromagnetic) have caused the substances of matter to cluster together forming the major structures of the universe: atoms, molecules, cosmic dust, nebulae, asteroids, comets, moons, planets, stars, black holes, and galaxies.
Big Idea:
The universe (space and time) had a beginning and is finite.
The universe is expanding.
Red shifts and the Hubble constant can be used to learn about the origin and history of the universe.
MN Standard Benchmarks
9.3.3.3.1. Explain how evidence, including the Doppler shift of light from distant stars and cosmic background radiation, is used to understand the composition, early history and expansion of the universe.
9.3.3.3.2. Explain how gravitational clumping leads to nuclear fusion, producing energy and the chemical elements of a star.
THE ESSENTIALS:
Cartoon "Hubble Constant" by Nick D. Kim, strange-matter.net. Used by permission.
- NSES Standards
NSES Content Standard A Physical Science (grades 9-12)
The nuclear forces that hold the nucleus of an atom together, at nuclear distances, are usually stronger than the electric forces that would make it fly apart. Nuclear reactions convert a fraction of the mass of interacting particles into energy, and they can release much greater amounts of energy than atomic interactions. Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the joining of two nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure, and is the process responsible for the energy of the sun and other stars.
Gravitation is a universal force that each mass exerts on any other mass. The strength of the gravitational attractive force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Conservation of Energy and the Increase in Disorder
The total energy of the universe is constant. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by light waves and other radiations, and in many other ways. However, it can never be destroyed. As these transfers occur, the matter involved becomes steadily less ordered.
Heat consists of random motion and the vibrations of atoms, molecules, and ions. The higher the temperature, the greater the atomic or molecular motion.
Interactions of Energy and Matter
Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated or decelerated. Electromagnetic waves include radio waves (the longest wavelength), microwaves, infrared radiation (radiant heat), visible light, ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays. The energy of electromagnetic waves is carried in packets whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the wavelength.
NSES Content Standard D Earth and Space Science (grades 9-12)
The Origin and Evolution of the Universe
The origin of the universe remains one of the greatest questions in science. The "big bang" theory places the origin between 10 and 20 billion years ago, when the universe began in a hot dense state; according to this theory, the universe has been expanding ever since.
Early in the history of the universe, matter, primarily the light atoms hydrogen and helium, clumped together by gravitational attraction to form countless trillions of stars. Billions of galaxies, each of which is a gravitationally bound cluster of billions of stars, now form most of the visible mass in the universe.
Stars produce energy from nuclear reactions, primarily the fusion of hydrogen to form helium. These and other processes in stars have led to the formation of all the other elements.
Solar system and others.
Benchmarks of Science Literacy
Project 2061: Benchmarks for Science Literacy (2009).
Chapter #A
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
One way science affects society is by stimulating and satisfying people's curiosity and enlarging or challenging their views of what the world is like. 3A/H3b*
Chapter 4A
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
On the basis of scientific evidence, the universe is estimated to be over ten billion years old. The current theory is that its entire contents expanded explosively from a hot, dense, chaotic mass. 4A/H2ab
Stars condensed by gravity out of clouds of molecules of the lightest elements until nuclear fusion of the light elements into heavier ones began to occur. Fusion released great amounts of energy over millions of years. 4A/H2cd
Increasingly sophisticated technology is used to learn about the universe. Visual, radio, and X-ray telescopes collect information from across the entire spectrum of electromagnetic waves; computers handle data and complicated computations to interpret them; space probes send back data and materials from remote parts of the solar system; and accelerators give subatomic particles energies that simulate conditions in the stars and in the early history of the universe before stars formed. 4A/H3
Mathematical models and computer simulations are used in studying evidence from many sources in order to form a scientific account of the universe. 4A/H4
Chapter 4E
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
Energy is released whenever the nuclei of very heavy atoms, such as uranium or plutonium, split into middleweight ones, or when very light nuclei, such as those of hydrogen and helium, combine into heavier ones. For a given quantity of a substance, the energy released in a nuclear reaction is very much greater than the energy given off in a chemical reaction. 4E/H6*
Thermal energy in a system is associated with the disordered motions of its atoms or molecules. Gravitational energy is associated with the separation of mutually attracting masses. Electrical potential energy is associated with the separation of mutually attracting or repelling charges. 4E/H7** (BSL)
Chapter 4F
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
The change in motion (direction or speed) of an object is proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to the mass. 4F/H1*
The observed wavelength of a wave depends upon the relative motion of the source and the observer. If either is moving toward the other, the observed wavelength is shorter; if either is moving away, the wavelength is longer. 4F/H5ab
Because the light seen from almost all distant galaxies has longer wavelengths than comparable light here on Earth, astronomers believe that the whole universe is expanding. 4F/H5c
Chapter 4G
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
Gravitational force is an attraction between masses. The strength of the force is proportional to the masses and weakens rapidly with increasing distance between them. 4G/H1
Electric forces acting within and between atoms are vastly stronger than the gravitational forces acting between the atoms. At larger scales, gravitational forces accumulate to produce a large and noticeable effect, whereas electric forces tend to cancel each other out. 4G/H2a*
The nuclear forces that hold the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom together are much stronger than the electric forces between the protons and electrons of the atom. That is why much greater amounts of energy are released from nuclear reactions than from chemical reactions. 4G/H6*
Chapter 8C
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
Nuclear reactions release energy without the combustion products of burning fuels, but the radioactivity of fuels and their by-products poses other risks. 8C/H3*
Sunlight is the ultimate source of most of the energy we use. The energy in fossil fuels such as oil and coal comes from energy that plants captured from the sun long ago. 8C/H8** (BSL)
Chapter 9B
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
Any mathematical model, graphic or algebraic, is limited in how well it can represent how the world works. The usefulness of a mathematical model for predicting may be limited by uncertainties in measurements, by neglect of some important influences, or by requiring too much computation. 9B/H3
Chapter 9D
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
A physical or mathematical model can be used to estimate the probability of real-world events. 9D/H8
Chapter 9E
By the end of the 12th grade, students should know that
Because computers can store, retrieve, and process large amounts of data, they can rapidly perform a long series of logic steps. They are therefore being used increasingly to help experts solve complex problems that would otherwise be very difficult or impossible to solve. Not all logic problems, however, can be solved by computers. 9E/H5*
Common Core Standards:
High school (grades 9, 10, 11) Mathematics: Geometry and Measurement. Calculate measurements of plane and solid geometric figures; know that physical measurements depend on the choice of a unit and that they are approximations.
9.3.1.3 Understand that quantities associated with physical measurements must be assigned units; apply such units correctly in expressions, equations and problem solutions that involve measurements; and convert between measurement systems.
High school (grades 6-12) English Language Arts.
Standard 10: Range, quality, and complexity of student reading 6-12. Students in grades 6-12 apply the Reading standards to the following range of text types, with texts selected from a broad range of cultures and periods.
Other examples:
Integration of knowledge and ideas. 11.12.7.7 Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, spatially, aurally, physically as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem.
Key ideas and details. 9.13.1.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to the precise details of explanations or descriptions.
Craft and structure. 11.13.4.4 Determine the meaning of symbols, equations, graphical representations, tabular representations, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 11-12 texts and topics.
Misconceptions
Weiler, B. (2004). Children's Misconceptions about Science.
- Gravity is selective; it acts differently or not at all on some matter.
- The sun will never burn out.
- The sun is not a star.
- The effects of light are instantaneous. Light does not travel with a finite speed.
- Gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light, microwaves and radio waves are all very different entities.
- There is no relationship between matter and energy.
Comins, N.F. (2011). Heavenly errors: Misconceptions about the real nature of the universe.
- All galaxies are moving away from the Earth.
- The universe is expanding at constant speed.
- Time and space are infinite (or universe is infinite).
- The universe is too large to measure.
- The universe has existed forever.
- We know the precise age of the universe.
- The universe is the same age as the solar system.
- The universe has always been "huge."
Bibliographic Citations
Vignette
After students have completed a brief activity about the Doppler effect on sound, Mrs. H begins using the Four Question strategy to ask students what type of materials they might need to investigate Doppler effects on light (question 1). Students pair up and discuss for a few minutes and then share with the entire class; student ideas include spectroscopes. Mrs. H next asks (second question of the strategy): how does the Doppler effect (for light) act? Time is provided for students to examine the information presented in their textbooks, and to discuss with neighboring students. Mrs. H asks for volunteers to share what they've read about the main points of the Doppler effect. Mrs. H shares the third question of the strategy: how can we change the set of Doppler effect materials to affect the action? The students indicate that the easiest variable to consider would be "movement." Mrs. H probes the class a little bit further about materials, and poses the final question: how can we measure or describe the response of the Doppler effect to the change (in movement)? After some discussion the class elects to build crude spectroscopes and decides to try using the spectroscopes to separate the light from some moving and non-moving light-emitting objects to see if Doppler shifting is obvious.
The class separates into groups of two with each investigating a different light source with the following study parameters: 1) stationary light source, and 2) same light source when moving. The students are engaged and attempt to explain their findings. After a couple of class periods spent designing and building spectroscopes, and conducting their investigations, the class arrives at the consensus that no discernable Doppler shift in the spectra is easily identifiable. During the next class period, the instructor facilitates an activity where students explore trends in galaxy movement utilizing actual stellar spectra to calculate mass from distance and information about radial velocity.
Four-Question Strategy: Cothron, J.H. (1993). Students and research. Dubuque IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Resources
Instructional suggestions/options:
A number of resources (e.g., activities, animations, videos, and more) have been provided related to standard 9.3.3.3 - The big bang theory states that the universe expanded from a hot, dense chaotic mass, after which chemical elements formed and clumped together to eventually form stars and galaxies. To start a lesson on this standard, engage students in an activity related to the Doppler effect (using sound), and then provide an activity that extends their understanding to Doppler effects on light. From the Doppler effect, the evidence for an expanding universe and the origination of all matter and energy via the Big Bang theory may be explored. Consider working through the NASA Lessons related to the benchmark topics, which includes a variety of engaging activities tied to the 5E model (BSCS). Next, consider reinforcing ideas related to solar fusion through showing animations and video clips. A number of lesson and activity options are presented above, and the more hands-on engagement students can have related to this standard, the better.
Selected activities, labs, lessons:
9.3.3.3.1. Explain how evidence, including the Doppler shift of light from distant stars and cosmic background radiation, is used to understand the composition, early history and expansion of the universe.
NASA. (n.d). Lesson2A: Spectroscopes.
This lesson from NASA introduces students to the analysis of light through a series of activities following the 5E approach. (9.3.3.3.1)
NASA. (n.d.). Lesson3A: Revisiting the electromagnetic spectrum.
This lesson from NASA introduces students to the nature of light through a series of activities following the 5E approach. (9.3.3.3.1)
Stanford Solar Center. (2008). Build your own spectroscope.
Learn how to build a simple spectroscope; site contains links to other sun-related activities. [Activity designed for younger students, but easily adaptable to high school. (9.3.3.3.1)
Windows to the Universe (2011). Capturing the afterglow of the Big Bang.
A discussion of cosmic microwave background radiation and launching point to other information from the Windows2Universe site. Appropriate for helping to explain the science for students and teachers. (9.3.3.3.1)
Lancaster, K. (2011). Molecules and light.
A potentially useful activity for students to explore the absorption of light by molecules and how composition can be determined by analyzing light. (9.3.3.3.1)
FUSE/NASA. (n.d.). Using the Doppler Effect.
An engaging activity that helps students to understand how to calculate mass from radial velocity and distance. (9.3.3.3.1)
NASA/MSU-Bozeman. (n.d.). CERES project: The expanding universe.
Six engaging activities designed to help students understand concepts and topics related to the expansion of the universe: Hubble Law, model of the expanding universe, measurement, etc. (9.3.3.3.1)
Mather, J.C. (2008). [Video] The story of the universe.
Specific portions of the video may be useful to teachers, particularly "Birth of the Universe" and "Astrophysics 101" chapters. Show the video clip(s) to elaborate on the particulars of the formation of the universe. (9.3.3.3.1)
NASA/WMAP Science Team. (2010). Universe 101: Big Bang Theory.
A series of information from NASA related to cosmology, the universe, and the Big Bang theory. A great resource for research papers/projects. (9.3.3.3.1)
9.3.3.3.2. Explain how gravitational clumping leads to nuclear fusion, producing energy and the chemical elements of a star.
NASA. (n.d.) Lesson5A: The role of gravity in the space system.
This lesson from NASA introduces students to the nature of gravity through a series of activities following the 5E approach. (9.3.3.3.2)
Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA. (n.d.). Genesis Search for Origins: The nuclear fire of the sun.
Information about how nuclear fusion began in the sun. Use the site to facilitate explanations related to the sun (for teachers and/or students). (9.3.3.3.2)
Soper, D.E. (n.d.). Energy production in the sun by nuclear fusion. University of Oregon.
Web pages describing the process of solar fusion. (9.3.3.3.2)
NASA. (2007). Issue #49: Solar energy.
NASA web link describing the process of solar fusion. (9.3.3.3.2)
Discovery Channel. (2011). [video] The sun. Discovery Communications, LLC.
Short 5 minute video discusses the sun's life cycle and the process of nuclear fusion. The link takes you to Part I (about Copernicus), but Part II is the clip of interest about the "Sun" (so skip ahead to it if desired). (9.3.3.3.2)
Nova. (2006). [video] The elements: Forged in stars. WBGH Educational Foundations. A 3 minute video clip about fusion in the sun and the production of different elements. (9.3.3.3.2)
Additional resources or links:
University of Nebraska, Lincoln. (n.d.). Astronomy Interactives. Astronomy Education at the University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
Interactive simulations about a number of astronomy-related topics (e.g., blackbody radiation, etc.). Teachers might use them as class demonstrations, to clarify understanding, or students may use them to explore astronomy issues.
Bennett, J., Donahue, M., Schneider, N., & Voit, M. (2007). The cosmic perspective (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson.
A great textbook for reviewing astronomy concepts (for teachers), or a useful resource for students completing research reports/projects.
Biological Science Curriculum Study. (2011). The 5E instructional model.
The 5E model (e.g., engage, explore, explain, etc.) is a useful approach to take when teaching science (and other disciplines). For those teachers who are unfamiliar, check out this link for more information.
Cothron, J.H. (1993). Students and research. Dubuque IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Four-Question Strategy (see Vignette):Use the four question strategy to generate experimental ideas and to demonstrate the variety of options available for student investigations.
NASA Earth System Science. Table of Contents.
Find a table of contents of earth system (atmosphere, hydrosphere, spacesphere, activities at this web page. Activities follow the 5E approach.
Space Telescope Science Institute. (2011). Hubble Site: Video archive.
The site provides a gallery of articles by topic. Teachers and students may use the site to enhance their research of astronomy-related topics for class instruction or papers/projects.
Trefil, J., & Hazen, R. (2010). The sciences: An integrated approach (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
A great textbook for reviewing general science concepts (for teachers), or a useful resource for students completing research reports/projects.
Universe (6th ed.). Animations and videos. W.H. Freeman.
This link takes teachers to a number of astronomy animations and video clips. Enhance your classroom instruction by illustrating the concepts your teaching about with animations.
University of Colorado at Boulder. (2011). Interactive Simulations and Lessons.
Interactive simulations about a number of physics-related topics (e.g., beta decay, blackbody spectrum, etc.). Teachers might use them as class demonstrations, to clarify understanding, or students may use them to explore science issues. Activities are often associated with the simulations, and teachers may sort by grade level and topic.
University of Washington. (2009). Can astronomy classes be made accessible to students who are visually impaired? Center for Universal Design in Education.
Use the link to gather ideas about teaching astronomy-related topics to students with visual impairments.
Vocabulary/glossary:
- Big Bang theory = "the scientific theory of the universe's earliest moments, stating that all the matter in our observable universe came into being at a single moment in time as an extremely hot, dense mixture of subatomic particles and radiation" (Bennett et al., 2007, glossary definition).
- Cosmic (Microwave) Background Radiation = "microwave radiation, characteristic of a body at 3 K, [arriving at] Earth from all directions. This radiation is evidence for the big bang" (Trefil & Hazen, 2010, glossary definition)
- Nuclear fusion = the process by which atomic nuclei combine and release energy
- Doppler effect = a change in the normal frequency or wavelength of a wave (light or sound) caused by motion of the source
- Universe = all matter and energy that exists
- Star = an object that emits light and energy via nuclear fusion
- Galaxy = a cluster of billions of stars bound together by gravity
- Chemical element = material of a single atom, indivisible, with a unique set of specific properties and characteristics (arranged in an ordered pattern of general characteristics within the Periodic Table of the Elements)
- Energy = ability to do work or move matter (e.g., kinetic, potential, radiative)
WorldWide Telescope is a downloadable product (FREE) that offers access to numerous high-resolution images of objects in the universe such as planets, moons, galaxies, nebulae, etc. Several pre-packaged tours of solar system or deep space objects are available, and teachers are able to design their own tours too.
Hubble's law can be used to complete mathematical calculations related to distant galaxies. Can be integrated with mathematics.
Redshifts and blueshifts of spectra can be used to make mathematical calculations related to speed of travel for objects. Can be integrated with mathematics and physics.
Emission and absorption spectra can be used to identify composition and ties well with chemistry and physics.
The entire cosmological concepts of the big bang and the expanding universe integrate well with physics.
Assessment
Students:
Bennett, J., Donahue, M., Schneider, N., & Voit, M. (2007). The cosmic perspective (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson. [Chapter 1, p. 22; question 3; Chapter 20, p. 636; question12; Chapter 14, p. 498; question 1; Chapter 5, p. 170; questions 15 & 18. Answers from the associated "Instructor Guide" by same authors.]
Questions from:
1. What do we mean when we say that the universe is expanding? How does expansion lead to the idea of the Big Bang?
When we say that the universe is expanding, we mean that the average distance between galaxies is increasing with time. If the universe is expanding, then if we imagine playing time backward, we'd see the universe shrinking. Eventually, if we went far enough back in time, the universe would be compressed until everything were on top of everything else. This suggests that the universe may have been very tiny and dense at some point in the distant past and has been expanding ever since. This beginning is what we call the Big Bang.
2. How is the expansion of the surface of an inflating balloon similar to the expansion of the universe? Use the balloon analogy to explain why Hubble's constant is related to the age of the universe.
The expansion of the universe is like the expansion of the surface of a balloon because both expand without having edges or centers. In this analogy, we can see how Hubble's constant can tell us the age of the universe. If a scientist on the balloon saw another scientist 6 centimeters away moving away from her at 2 centimeters per second, she would conclude that the scientist had been in contact with her 3 seconds ago. She would also find a Hubble constant of 2 cm/s/6 cm or 1/3 (1/s). So the inverse of her Hubble constant would give her the time when all of the scientists were in one spot. This time is also the expansion time or the age of the surface of the balloon, her "universe."
3. Briefly describe how gravitational contraction generates energy. When was it important in the Sun's history? Explain.
As something contracts, its gravitational potential energy is converted into thermal energy. This energy source was important for the Sun when the Sun was forming billions of years ago because it provided the energy needed to start the fusion in the Sun's core.
4. How can we use emission or absorption lines to determine the chemical composition of a distant object?
Each atom tends to absorb and emit different wavelengths of light. Similarly, every molecule absorbs or emits different bands of wavelengths. So when we look at an absorption or emission spectrum, we can see the "fingerprints" of the different atoms (or ions) or molecules. In this way, we can learn what an object is made of without ever sampling the object.
5. Describe the Doppler effect for light and what we can learn from it. What does it mean to say that radio waves are blue-shifted? [modified]
The Doppler effect is the change in frequency in light due to the source's motion toward or away from the observer. When the source is coming toward us, the light we see has a shorter wavelength (higher frequency), and we say that it is blueshifted. If the object is moving away from us, the light has a longer frequency than we would expect, and we say that it is redshifted. [modified]
Teachers:
Trefil, J., & Hazen, R. (2010). The sciences: An integrated approach (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. [Chapter 15, p. 326-327; discussion questions 4 & 6; answers from the associated "Instructor's Manual".]
1. Is the universe getting hotter or colder as it expands? In what way will the cosmic background radiation change as the universe changes temperature?
The universe is getter colder as it expands. The cosmic background radiation will reflect the ambient temperature.
2. What were the conditions of the early universe that allowed for the creation of light elements? Why is there an abundance of lighter elements in the universe?
Cosmologists believe that the only nuclei that could have formed in the big bang are isotopes of lighter elements such as hydrogen, helium, and lithium. All elements heavier than lithium were formed later in stars. There is an abundance of lighter elements in an expanding universe because the density of matter will decrease rapidly because of the expansion. Each type of nuclei can form only in a very narrow range of conditions. Calculations based on density and collision frequency, together with known nuclear reaction rates, make rather specific predictions about how much of each isotope could have been made before matter spread too thinly. Thus, we have a cosmic abundance of elements such as deuterium and helium-3.
Bennett, J., Donahue, M., Schneider, N., & Voit, M. (2007). The cosmic perspective (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson. [Chapter 16, p. 545; question 13; answers from the associated "Instructor Guide" by same authors]
3. Why does radiation of thermal energy from the surface of a protostar enable its central temperature to rise? Describe the final stages a protostar goes through before fusion begins in its core. [modified]
Because protostars radiate away energy from their surfaces, they are able to contract further. Since only half of the energy is radiated away, this allows their central temperatures to rise. So as the stars continue to contract, the central temperature rises. Eventually, the temperature reaches 10 million K, making it hot enough for hydrogen fusion to operate efficiently through the proton-proton chain. [modified]
Administrators:
A visiting administrator should see students working with hands-on activities. For example, an observation occurring during this unit might enable an administrator to see students building and investigating with spectroscopes, or students researching how light is an indispensable tool for learning about distant objects in the universe.
Differentiation
Struggling and At-Risk
Motivating is a key for working with this population. Much of astronomy is so interesting and novel because it is removed from everyday experiences; motivate students to participate in this unit by pinning up photographs and posters of nebulae, galaxies, and other stars.
McGraw-Hill Education. (n.d.). Improving reading skills in science.
McGraw-Hill Education. (n.d.) Finding science in the real world.
McGraw-Hill Education. (n.d.) High stakes science tests: Will your students be ready?
Facilitate the learning of English for ELL students by having one station with equipment labels.
For details, see:
According to Lee & Buxton (2010), a couple of approaches are useful for assisting English Language Learners (ELLs): teach content while fostering language development and draw on the so-called "funds of knowledge", which are students' personal experiences from home or community. For additional details on this see the original NSTA News posting and the official NSTA position statement.
According to Lee & Buxton (2010), a couple of approaches are useful for assisting English Language Learners (ELLs): teach content while fostering language development and draw on the so-called "funds of knowledge", which are students' personal experiences from home or community. For additional details on this see the original NSTA News posting and the official NSTA position statement.
Lee, O., & Buxton, C.A. (2010, April). NSTA Report: Teaching science to English language learners.
NSTA. (2004). Students with disabilities. Official NSTA Position Statement.
McGraw-Hill Education. (n.d.) English language learners in science.
G/T
A student who may be G/T may benefit from being given opportunities to explore topics and mathematical relationships related to the expansion of the universe: radial velocity and mass calculations. An example of an activity for them to tackle would be the FUSE/NASA activity (for 9.3.3.3.1).
Retrieved from Differentiating Science Instruction. McGraw-Hill Education
It might be possible to incorporate Native American (as well as other cultures) creation stories into the class as a background reference when first beginning a discussion of the origin of the universe. For an example, see:
For additional details see:
NSTA. (2000). Multicultural science education. Official NSTA Position Statement.
For students who may be visually impaired, project images from spectroscopes onto a large screen.
For details, see:
Students with disabilities. Official NSTA Position Statement. Retrieved from:
Grice, N. (2006). Resources for making astronomy more accessible for blind and visually impaired students. Astronomy Education Review, 5(1), 154-157.
Parents/Admin
American Association of Physics Teachers. (2007). Physics first informational guide.
National Science Resources Center. (2011). Parent resources. Smithsonian Institution:
Science.gov (2011). Science education: Resources for kids, parents, and teachers.
Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. (2009). UniverseForum. Public outreach site for educators and parents.